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To the north, the Celts now cover western Europe from Spain in the west to Britain in the north. Peoples closely related to them, both ethnically and culturally, dominate central Europe. Russian expansionism in the Far East leads to the Russo- Japanese war of 1904. This is disastrous for Russia, which is defeated by Japanese nerve and technical superiority. The defeat of giant Russia at the hands of tiny Japan is a national humiliation, and is followed by industrial strikes, peasant unrest, and mutinies in the army and navy. Demands for large-scale reform come from all quarters. A parliament, the Duma, is called, but it can only discuss problems, not legislate. The revolutionary activity of 1905 is followed by a period of repression. Under the ministry of Peter Stolypin, some much-needed reforms are carried out, including land reform to aid the newly-freed peasants, and a dramatic expansion of the education system. Stolypin is assassinated in 1911. Riley, J. C. (2005). Estimates of regional and global life expectancy, 1800–2001. Population and Development Review, 31(3), 537–543. His son, Peter the Great (1689-1726), was determined to modernise (i.e. Europeanise) Russia, and set about doing so with enormous energy. He expelled Sweden from the Baltic coast (giving Russia much prized access to ice-free waters), actively encouraged commerce and industry, founded a navy, re-organized the army along modern lines, carried out a root-and-branch reform of the administration, forced the nobles to shave their beards and wear European dress, introduced western education and built a new capital on some marshland on the Gulf of Finland – St Petersburg, one of Europe’s most spectacular cities December 1, 1918 - Kingdom of Romania merges with all the principalities (Țara Românească , Moldova and Transilvania) after the Treaty of Trianon and the collapse of the Russian Empire.
In these areas of western Europe, urban life and culture is mostly a thing of the past. Economic life is now largely based on huge self-contained estates (the precursors of medieval “manors”); a class of warrior land-owners dominates society. Literacy and education is almost exclusively the preserve of the Christian clergy, and Graeco-Roman learning is preserved only in monasteries. The frontiers of Europe This period of European history has been dominated by revolution and war, and then by counter-revolution; and now European society is changed in the most radical way it has ever experienced. The past decades have seen Europe torn apart – and its map radically redrawn – by World War 1 (1914-18) and the Treaty of Versailles, the Great Depression, the rise of Nazi Germany, World War 2 (1939-45), and now the Cold War. NATO and the Warsaw PactBeyond the imperial frontiers, the German peoples have been experiencing a period of major upheaval, which affects the Romans through a much increased pressure on their frontiers. Roman emperors are having to spend more and more of their time on campaign. This trend will only continue, and shortly the empire – and with it the Graeco-Roman civilization it shelters – will enter its long period of decline. New religions This map shows the history of Europe in 500 BCE. The Iron Age has spread throughout the region, and has given rise to the brilliant civilization of the Ancient Greeks. Iron Age Europe Printing also helped to spread the great religious movements known as the Reformation and Counter-Reformation around Europe. These have convulsed the continent by dividing the Christian church into two bitterly-opposed camps, Protestantism and Roman Catholicism: Scandinavia, the Low Countries and Britain are Protestant, while Spain and Portugal, Italy and central Europe have remained Catholic. Germany and (to a lesser extent) France are split between the two. Most have rejected their old tribal kings and adopted a republican style of government. They provide a fruitful environment for advances in many branches of endeavour: artistic, intellectual and political.
Civilizing influences from the Middle East began again to be felt by the peoples of south-eastern Europe in the centuries after 1000 BCE. Phoenician merchants developed new trading networks across the Mediterranean Sea. They brought with them knowledge of the great civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt– and also an important new tool, alphabetic writing. A brilliant new civilizationThe Russians’ western neighbour, Poland-Lithuania, has been able to take advantage of the Russian princes’ subordination to the Golden Horde by expanding far into their territory. However, by this date the Golden Horde is in decline, with independent khanates being established in the Crimea and Kazan. The front line dividing Europe runs through Germany, which is now two states: West Germany and East Germany. Austria, Switzerland and Sweden remain neutral. Recovery and change
Stalin died in 1953 and was succeeded by Nikita Khrushchev. Under Khrushchev, things improved for the Russian people, but Soviet armies now occupy most of Eastern Europe, and it has imposed tight control over its satellite nations there. In 1955, it established the Warsaw Pact, to counter NATO. The Russian principalities were devastated by a massive Mongol invasion in 1242. The city of Kiev was completely destroyed and all the principalities were incorporated into the Mongol empire, as tribute-paying vassals. Only the Republic of Novgorod was able to resist. Novgorod, with its huge hinterland, has continued to flourish by developing strong trading ties with western Europe. The shrunken towns are now dominated by Christian bishops, who have proved to be the only figures capable of protecting the townsmen in these turbulent times.Aburto, J. M., Villavicencio, F., Basellini, U., Kjærgaard, S., & Vaupel, J. W. (2020). Dynamics of life expectancy and life span equality. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(10), 5250–5259. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1915884117 Barbieri, M., Wilmoth, J. R., Shkolnikov, V. M., Glei, D., Jasilionis, D., Jdanov, D., Boe, C., Riffe, T., Grigoriev, P., & Winant, C. (2015). Data Resource Profile: The Human Mortality Database (HMD). International Journal of Epidemiology, 44(5), 1549–1556. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyv105 Graeco-Roman civilization has taken a major hit in these former Roman provinces, and society is experiencing huge changes. The city-based way of life enjoyed by the Romans is in steep decline.
Riley (2005) 3 compiles life expectancy estimates from hundreds of historical sources and calculates the average of estimates that met an acceptable quality threshold, such as having estimates for entire nations or regions. Less historical data is available from the pre-health transition period in countries – this is especially the case for Africa, Asia, Oceania, and the former Soviet Union. Riley (2005) 3 compiles life expectancy estimates from hundreds of historical sources. It calculates the average of estimates that met an acceptable quality threshold, such as having estimates for entire nations or regions. Less historical data is available from the pre-health transition period in countries – especially for Africa, Asia, Oceania, and the former Soviet Union. This map shows the history of Europe in 500 CE. The Roman Empire survives in the east, but the western provinces have fallen to a group of German tribes. The Roman Empire in decline Oeppen, J., & Vaupel, J. W. (2002). Broken Limits to Life Expectancy. Science, 296(5570), 1029–1031. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1069675 February 17, 2008 - The Republic of Kosovo declares independence from Serbia. Its independence is only partly recognized.
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The chart shows which country had the highest recorded female life expectancy in each year. It comes from a study by Jim Oeppen and James W Vaupel. 14 This map shows the history of Europe in 30 BCE. The past two centuries have seen the power of Rome come to dominate western Europe and the Mediterranean; its empire now covers Italy, Spain, Gaul, parts of North Africa and Greece, and large parts of the Middle East. Civil wars and the rise of empire By this time the original Norse elite had intermarried with the surrounding Slav peoples and adopted Slavic names and language. Even the kings soon came to have Slav names. The countries of Europe have continued to wage major wars amongst themselves. France, Holland and Briain compete with each other for overseas empires, while those of Spain and Portugal are in decline. Prussia and Austria jostle for influence in Germany,
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